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1
What organelle does cellular respiration occur in?
Mitochondria
2
What type of cells perform cellular respiration?
Eukaryotic cells
3
What are the three main stages of cellular respiration?
Glycolysis

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

Electron Transport Chain (Oxidative Phosphorylation)
4
Where does glycolysis occur?
Cytoplasm (cytosol)
5
Where do the Citric Acid Cycle and Electron Transport Chain occur?
Mitochondria
6
How does energy production differ between anaerobic and aerobic respiration?
Aerobic respiration produces significantly more ATP (~36-38) compared to anaerobic respiration (2 ATP).
7
What is the evolutionary significance of glycolysis?
It is an ancient pathway that evolved before oxygen was plentiful in the atmosphere; it does not require oxygen or mitochondria.
8
What is the difference between facultative anaerobes and obligate anaerobes?
Facultative anaerobes can survive with or without oxygen, while obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen.
9
Is cellular respiration exothermic or endothermic?
Exothermic (it releases energy)
10
What is the chemical equation for cellular respiration?
$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP$
11
What are the two main stages of photosynthesis?
Light-dependent reactions

Light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle)
12
What are the products of the light-dependent reactions?
ATP, NADPH, and Oxygen ( $O_2$ )
13
In what organelle does photosynthesis take place?
Chloroplast
14
What pigment is necessary for photosynthesis?
Chlorophyll
15
What wavelengths of light does chlorophyll absorb best?
Blue and red light
16
What cell structure is responsible for gas exchange in plants?
Stomata (stoma)
17
When would stomata be open?
During the day, to allow carbon dioxide ( $CO_2$ ) to enter for photosynthesis.
18
When would stomata be closed?
At night or during drought conditions, to prevent water loss.
19
Is photosynthesis exothermic or endothermic?
Endothermic (it absorbs energy)
20
What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?
$6CO_2 + 6H_2O + Light Energy \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$
21
What is the purpose of mitosis?
To produce two genetically identical daughter cells for growth and tissue repair.
22
What are the stages of the cell life cycle?
Interphase and the Mitotic Phase (M phase)
23
What are the sub-stages of Interphase?
G1 (Gap 1)

S (Synthesis)

G2 (Gap 2)
24
When does chromosome duplication occur?
S Phase (Synthesis) of Interphase
25
What happens during Prophase?
Chromosomes condense and become visible; the nuclear envelope breaks down; spindle fibers form.
26
What happens during Metaphase?
Chromosomes line up along the center (metaphase plate) of the cell.
27
What happens during Anaphase?
Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
28
What is the difference between plant and animal cell cytokinesis?
Animal cells form a cleavage furrow (pinch inward); plant cells form a cell plate.
29
What is the purpose of meiosis?
To produce gametes (sex cells) with half the number of chromosomes.
30
How many cells are produced at the end of meiosis?
Four genetically unique cells
31
Are the products of meiosis diploid or haploid?
Haploid (n)
32
What is the Law of Independent Assortment?
Genes for different traits are distributed to gametes independently of one another.
33
What is the Law of Segregation?
Pair of alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation so each gamete receives only one allele.
34
What are autosomal chromosomes?
Chromosomes that determine general body characteristics (not sex).
35
What is the difference between somatic cells and gametes?
Somatic cells are body cells (diploid), while gametes are sex cells (haploid).
36
What is an allele?
An alternative form of a gene.
37
What is the difference between heterozygous and homozygous?
Heterozygous means having two different alleles (e.g., Aa); homozygous means having two identical alleles (e.g., AA or aa).
38
What is the difference between dominant and recessive?
Dominant alleles mask the expression of recessive alleles; recessive alleles are only expressed when two copies are present.
39
What is incomplete dominance?
When the phenotype of the heterozygote is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes (e.g., red + white = pink).
40
What is codominance?
When both alleles are fully expressed in the heterozygote (e.g., a spotted coat).
41
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
A phosphate group

A 5-carbon sugar

A nitrogenous base
42
What is the difference in sugar structure between DNA and RNA?
DNA contains deoxyribose; RNA contains ribose.
43
In what stage of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?
S Phase of Interphase
44
Which bases pair with Adenine?
Adenine pairs with Thymine in DNA and with Uracil in RNA.
45
What is the monomer of a protein?
Amino acid
46
What type of bond holds amino acids together?
Peptide bond
47
What is a possible result of a single amino acid substitution mutation?
It can alter the shape and function of the resulting protein.
48
Where does transcription take place?
In the nucleus
49
Where does translation take place?
At the ribosome
50
What occurs during transcription?
DNA is used as a template to create a complementary strand of mRNA.
51
What occurs during translation?
The mRNA code is read by ribosomes to assemble a chain of amino acids into a protein.
52
If a DNA strand reads "TAC", what is the corresponding mRNA codon?
AUG